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Zambia — Gun Facts, Figures and the Law

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StockpilesGun Numbers

Civilian Guns

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Number of Privately Owned Firearms

The estimated total number of guns held by civilians in Zambia is 230,0001

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Rate of Civilian Firearm Possession per 100 Population

The rate of private gun ownership in Zambia is 8.92 firearms per 100 people

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Number of Privately Owned Firearms - World Ranking

In a comparison of the number of privately owned guns in 178 countries, Zambia ranked at No. 1121

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Rate of Privately Owned Firearms per 100 Population - World Ranking

In a comparison of the rate of private gun ownership in 179 countries, Zambia ranked at No. 682

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Number of Registered Firearms

The number of registered guns in Zambia is reported to be 86,6421

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Rate of Registered Firearms per 100 Population

The rate of registered firearms per 100 people in Zambia is 0.743

Government Guns

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Number of Military Firearms

The defence forces of Zambia are reported to have 34,3904 firearms

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Number of Law Enforcement Firearms

Police in Zambia are reported to have 18,2005 firearms

ImpactsGun Death and Injury

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Number of Homicides (any method)

ChartIn Zambia, annual homicides by any means total

2000: 7976
1999: 1,072
1998: 872

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Rate of Homicide per 100,000 People (any method)

ChartIn Zambia, the annual rate of homicide by any means per 100,000 population is

2004: 22.907
2003: 3.70
2002: 8.06
2000: 7.896
1999: 10.85
1998: 9.02

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Number of Suicides (any method)

In Zambia, annual suicides by any means total

1995: 558

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Rate of Suicide per 100,000 People (any method)

In Zambia, the annual rate of suicide by any means per 100,000 population is

1995: 0.518

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Number of Gun Suicides

In Zambia, annual firearm suicides total

1995: 58

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Rate of Gun Suicide per 100,000 People

In Zambia, the annual rate of firearm suicide per 100,000 population is

1995: 0.058

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Number of Unintentional Gun Deaths

In Zambia, annual unintentional shooting deaths total

1995: 28

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Rate of Unintentional Gun Death per 100,000 People

In Zambia, the annual rate of unintentional shooting death per 100,000 population is

1995: 0.028

ProductionGun Industry

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Firearm Manufacture

In Zambia, the manufacture of small arms, ammunition and/or their components is prohibited9 10

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Home-made Guns

In Zambia the prevalence of illicit craft, or 'home-made' firearm manufacture is reported to be low9

TransfersGun Trade and Trafficking

Export Control

In Zambia, firearm and ammunition exports are limited by transfer control law 11 12 13 14 15 16

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Small Arms Exports (US$)

The annual value of small arms and ammunition exports from Zambia is reported to be US$38117 (2009)

Import Control

In Zambia, firearm and ammunition imports are limited by transfer control law 18 19 20 12 14 15

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Small Arms Imports (US$)

The annual value of small arms and ammunition imports to Zambia is reported to be US$911,08317 (2009)

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Smuggling Guns and Ammunition

Reports suggest that the level of firearm and ammunition smuggling in Zambia is low9

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Market Cost of an AK-47 Assault Rifle (US$)

The asking price for an AK-47 pattern assault weapon in Zambia is reported to be US$8021

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Regulation of Arms Brokers

In Zambia, the activities of arms brokers and transfer intermediaries are not specifically regulated by law22

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End User Certificates

Customs regulations in Zambia do not include23 certification of the intended end user of any small arms or ammunition transfer, and/or a written declaration of its intended end use

MeasuresGun Regulation

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Firearm Regulation - Guiding Policy

The regulation of guns in Zambia is categorised as permissive24

Firearm Law

Guiding gun control legislation in Zambia is the Firearms Act25

Firearm Regulation Authority

Guns in Zambia are regulated by the Minister12

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Right to Possess Firearms

In Zambia, the right to private gun ownership is not guaranteed by law26

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Prohibited Firearms and Ammunition

In Zambia, civilians are not allowed to possess automatic firearms and 7.62 mm and .303 calibre rifles27 28 29

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Regulation of Handguns

In Zambia, private possession of handguns (pistols and revolvers) is permitted under licence30

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Gun Owner Licensing

In Zambia, only licensed gun owners26 31 32 14 may lawfully acquire, possess or transfer a firearm or ammunition

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Genuine Reason Required for Firearm Licence

Applicants for a gun owner’s licence in Zambia are required to prove genuine reason to possess a firearm, for example, hunting, target shooting, collection (antiques only), personal protection, security32 31 30

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Minimum Age for Firearm Possession

The minimum age for gun ownership in Zambia is 21 years33

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Gun Owner Background Checks

An applicant for a firearm licence in Zambia must pass background checks which consider criminal, health and mental32 31 30 records

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Reference Required for Firearm Licence

In Zambia, third party character references for each gun licence applicant are not required23

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Domestic Violence and Firearms

Where a past history, or apprehended likelihood of family violence exists, the law in Zambia does not stipulate23 that a gun licence should be denied or revoked

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Firearm Safety Training

In Zambia, an understanding of firearm safety and the law, tested in a theoretical and/or practical training course is required32 for a firearm licence

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Gun Owner Licensing Period

In Zambia gun owners must re-apply and re-qualify for their firearm licence every 3 years34

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Licensing Records

In Zambia, authorities maintain a record35 of individual civilians licensed to acquire, possess, sell or transfer a firearm or ammunition

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Limit on Number of Guns

Licensed firearm owners in Zambia are permitted to possess 1 firearm per firearm certificate31

Firearm Registration

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Civilian Gun Registration

In Zambia, the law requires35 that a record of the acquisition, possession and transfer of each privately held firearm be retained in an official register

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Gun Dealer Record Keeping

In Zambia, licensed firearm dealers are required36 to keep a record of each firearm or ammunition purchase, sale or transfer on behalf of a regulating authority

Gun Sales and Transfers

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Regulation of Private Gun Sales

In Zambia, the private sale and transfer of firearms is prohibited37 38

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Regulation of Dealer Gun Sales

In Zambia, dealing in firearms by way of business without a valid gun dealer’s licence is unlawful37 39 38 14

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Limit on Gun Dealer Sales

In Zambia, the number and type of firearms which can be sold by a licensed gun dealer to a single gun owner is limited to 1 firearm per firearm certificate26 31

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Waiting Period for Gun Possession

In Zambia, the minimum wait for a lawful firearm purchase to be completed is undetermined23

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Regulation of Gun Shows

In Zambia, gun shows and temporary firearm dealing events are not regulated23 in law

Storage and Transport of Guns and Ammunition

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Firearm and Ammunition Storage Regulations - Private

Firearm regulations in Zambia include40 written specifications for the lawful safe storage of private firearms and ammunition by licensed gun owners

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Firearm and Ammunition Storage Regulations - Dealer

Firearm regulations in Zambia include41 written specifications for the lawful safe storage of firearms and ammunition by licensed arms dealers

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Firearm and Ammunition Storage Regulations - Government

Government regulations in Zambia include42 written specifications for the lawful safe storage of firearms and ammunition by state entities

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Firearm and Ammunition Transport Regulations

Regulations in Zambia include30 written specifications for the lawful safe storage of firearms and ammunition while in transit

Marking and Tracing Guns and Ammunition

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Firearm Marking

In Zambia, a unique identifying mark on each firearm is required by law14 43 44

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Firearm Tracing

In Zambia, state authorities carry out43 recognised arms tracing and tracking procedures

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Penalty for Illicit Firearm Possession

In Zambia, the maximum penalty for illicit possession of firearms is 15 years prison26

Collection, Amnesty and Destruction Programmes

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Destruction and Disposal Policy

In Zambia, it is not state policy45 46 to destroy surplus, collected and seized firearms rather than return them to the secondary arms market

MeasuresInternational Controls

Regional Agreements

African Union

In June 2006, as a member of the African Union, Zambia adopted an African Common Position to take to the Conference to Review the UN Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA), held in June 200647

Southern African Development Community

As a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Zambia signed the SADC Declaration Concerning Firearms, Ammunition and Other Related Materials in March 2001. This laid the ground for the August, 2001 adoption of the legally binding SADC Protocol on Control of Firearms, Ammunition and Other Related Materials48

United Nations Arms Trade Treaty

In 2009, Zambia voted to begin49 negotiations towards a legally binding Arms Trade Treaty. In this vote, 151 UN Member States supported talks on an ATT, with 1 voting against, 20 abstentions, and 20 non-votes

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United Nations Firearms Protocol

The United Nations Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition has been signed and ratified50 by Zambia

United Nations Small Arms Programme of Action UNPoA

UNPoA Commitment

On 21 July 2001, Zambia committed to a consensus decision of the United Nations to adopt, support and implement the UN Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects51

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UNPoA National Reporting

Under the terms of its 2001 commitment to the United Nations small arms Programme of Action, Zambia has submitted one or more national reports52 53 on its implementation of the UNPoA

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UNPoA National Point of Contact

In Zambia, a National Point of Contact to deal with issues relating to the UNPoA has been designated54 53

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UNPoA National Coordinating Body

In Zambia, a National Coordinating Body to deal with issues relating to the UNPoA has not been designated54 53

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UNPoA Civil Society Involvement and Support

In National Reports of Zambia submitted to the UN, a history of substantive cooperation with civil society in support of UNPoA activities is apparent55

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UNPoA International Assistance – Donor

Funds for UNPoA implementation have not been donated53 by Zambia to other UN Member States

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UNPoA International Assistance – Recipient

Funds for UNPoA implementation have not been provided56 to Zambia by other UN Member States

United Nations Small Arms Register

According to the United Nations Register of Conventional Arms, Zambia has not declared1 its small arms exports in one or more annual National Reports on Arms Exports.

United Nations Membership

In the UN List of Member States, Zambia has been a Member State of the United Nations since 196457

Wassenaar Arrangement

The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls and Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies does not list58 Zambia as a Participating State
Last Updated on 18 March 2012

Short References

1.

Karp, Aaron.2007.‘Completing the Count: Civilian firearms.’ Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,27 August. (Q4)Full Citation

2.

Karp, Aaron.2007.‘Completing the Count: Civilian firearms.’ Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,27 August. (Q5)Full Citation

3.

GunPolicy.org.2011.‘Calculated Rates – Zambia.’ Historical Population Data – USCB International Data Base.Suitland, MD:US Census Bureau Population Division,17 March. (Q4227)Full Citation

4.

Karp, Aaron.2006.‘Trickle and Torrent: State stockpiles.’ Small Arms Survey 2006: Unfinished Business.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1 July. (Q6)Full Citation

5.

Karp, Aaron.2006.‘Trickle and Torrent: State stockpiles.’ Small Arms Survey 2006: Unfinished Business.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1 July. (Q7)Full Citation

6.

UNODC.2004.‘Recorded Intentional Homicide, Completed.’ Seventh United Nations Survey of Crime Trends and Operations of Criminal Justice Systems (1998-2000).Vienna:United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,19 March. (Q91)Full Citation

7.

Petrini, Benjamin.2011.‘Sub-Saharan Africa, 1995-2008, Total Recorded Intentional Homicide, Completed, Rate per 100,000 Population.’ World Bank Homicide Rate Dataset 1995-2008.Washington DC:Social Development Department, World Bank,10 February. (Q3812)Full Citation

8.

Jackson, Thomas.2005.‘Global Gun Deaths.’ NISAT Firearm Mortality Database 2005.Oslo:Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers,1 January. (Q12)Full Citation

9.

Zambia.2010.‘Law Enforcement / Criminalisation.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3231)Full Citation

10.

Zambia.1994.‘Restriction on Manufacture of Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2426)Full Citation

11.

Zambia.1994.‘Restriction on Export of Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2372)Full Citation

12.

Zambia.1994.‘Regulations.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2430)Full Citation

13.

IANSA.2006.‘Reviewing Action on Small Arms 2006: Assessing the first five years of the UN Programme of Action.’ Biting the Bullet 'Red Book' 2006.New York:International Action Network on Small Arms and the Biting the Bullet project,26 June. (Q82)Full Citation

14.

Zambia.2010.‘Legislation, Regulations, Administrative Procedures.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3230)Full Citation

15.

Zambia.2010.‘Export Controls.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3234)Full Citation

16.

Zambia.2005.‘Export Controls.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 April. (Q3243)Full Citation

17.

Marsh, Nicholas.2011.‘Database of Authorised Transfers of Small Arms and Light Weapons.’ NISAT Small Arms Trade Database.Oslo:Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers,1 June. (Q16)Full Citation

18.

Zambia.1994.‘Import of Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2369)Full Citation

19.

Zambia.1994.‘Registration of Imported Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2371)Full Citation

20.

Zambia.1994.‘Deposit in Warehouse of Firearms or Ammunition Imported for Sale.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2370)Full Citation

21.

World Bank.2007.‘Available Kalashnikov Prices for Specific Countries and Periods.’ Small Arms Survey 2007: Guns and the City.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,27 August. (Q3)Full Citation

22.

Zambia.2010.‘Brokering.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3235)Full Citation

23.

Zambia.1994.‘Arrangements of Sections, Preliminary, Short Title and Interpretation.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q4365)Full Citation

24.

Newton, George D and Franklin E Zimring.1969.‘Firearm Licensing: Permissive v Restrictive.’ Firearms & Violence in American Life: A Staff Report submitted to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence.Washington, DC:US Government Printing Office,1 January. (Q22)Full Citation

25.

Zambia.1994.‘Arrangements of Sections, Preliminary, Short Title and Interpretation.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2366)Full Citation

26.

Zambia.1994.‘Prohibition Against Purchase, etc., of Firearms or Ammunition Without Licence.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2373)Full Citation

27.

Zambia.1994.‘Prohibited Articles.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2427)Full Citation

28.

Zambia.1994.‘Interpretation.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2367)Full Citation

29.

Zambia.1994.‘Prohibited Articles.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2431)Full Citation

30.

United Nations.1999.‘Analysis of Country Responses.’ United Nations International Study on Firearm Regulation.Vienna:UN Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Division,30 August. (Q1)Full Citation

31.

Zambia.1994.‘Firearm Licence.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2375)Full Citation

32.

Zambia.1994.‘Firearm Certificate.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2374)Full Citation

33.

Zambia.1994.‘Young Persons.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2377)Full Citation

34.

Zambia.1994.‘Period of Validity and Renewal of Firearm Licence.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2376)Full Citation

35.

Zambia.1994.‘Establishment of Central Firearms Registry.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2368)Full Citation

36.

Zambia.1994.‘Register of Transactions in Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2425)Full Citation

37.

Zambia.1994.‘Restrictions on Sale or Transfer of Firearms.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2421)Full Citation

38.

Zambia.1994.‘Registration of Firearms Dealers.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2422)Full Citation

39.

Zambia.1994.‘Form and Duration of Firearms Dealer's Licence.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2424)Full Citation

40.

Zambia.1994.‘Safe Custody of Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2428)Full Citation

41.

Zambia.1994.‘Registration of Places of Business of Firearms Dealers.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2423)Full Citation

42.

Zambia.2010.‘Stockpile Management and Security.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3232)Full Citation

43.

Zambia.2010.‘Ammunition.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3236)Full Citation

44.

Zambia.2010.‘Brokering.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3237)Full Citation

45.

Zambia.2010.‘Collection and Disposal.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3233)Full Citation

46.

Zambia.1994.‘Disposal of Unclaimed Firearms and Ammunition.’ Firearms (Amendment) Act, Chapter 110, Firearms 13 of 1994.Lusaka:Republic of Zambia,1 January. (Q2429)Full Citation

47.

African Union / UNODA.2005.‘Windhoek Common Position.’ United Nations Programme of Action Implementation Support System: Regional Organisations.New York:African Union / United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs,14 December. (Q3216)Full Citation

48.

SADC / UNODA.2001.‘Protocol on Control of Firearms, Ammunition and Other Related Materials.’ United Nations Programme of Action Implementation Support System: Regional Organisations.New York:Southern African Development Community Secretariat / United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs,1 August. (Q3217)Full Citation

49.

UNGA.2009.‘Towards an Arms Trade Treaty: Establishing common international standards for the import, export and transfer of conventional arms.’ UN Resolution A/RES/64/48.New York:United Nations General Assembly,2 June. (Q1886)Full Citation

50.

UNGA.2001.‘United Nations Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing of and Trafficking in Firearms, Their Parts and Components and Ammunition.’ UN General Assembly Resolution 55/255.New York:UN General Assembly,31 May. (Q17)Full Citation

51.

UNGA.2001.‘Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects.’ United Nations General Assembly.New York:UN General Assembly,20 July. (Q18)Full Citation

52.

Cattaneo, Silvia and Sarah Parker.2008.‘Reporting, NPCs and NCAs, 2002 to 2008.’ Implementing the United Nations Programme of Action on Small Arms and Light Weapons: Analysis of the National Reports submitted by States from 2002 to 2008.Geneva:United Nations Development Programme,1 November. (Q20)Full Citation

53.

UNODA.2009.‘PoA-ISS Country Profiles.’ UN small arms Programme of Action (UNPoA) – Implementation Support System.New York:United Nations Office of Disarmament Affairs,29 October. (Q1309)Full Citation

54.

IANSA.2006.‘Reviewing Action on Small Arms 2006: Assessing the first five years of the UN Programme of Action.’ Biting the Bullet 'Red Book' 2006.New York:International Action Network on Small Arms and the Biting the Bullet project,26 June. (Q166)Full Citation

55.

Zambia.2010.‘Cooperation with Civil Society and NGOs.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3242)Full Citation

56.

Zambia.2010.‘International Cooperation and Assistance.’ National Report of Zambia on its Implementation of the United Nations Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects (UNPoA).New York:Permanent Mission of Zambia to the United Nations,1 January. (Q3241)Full Citation

57.

UN.2009.‘Member States of the United Nations.’ UN.org Web Site.New York:United Nations General Assembly,11 May. (Q290)Full Citation

58.

Wassenaar Arrangement.1996.‘Introduction: Participating States.’ Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls and Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies.Vienna:Wassenaar Secretariat,12 July. (Q19)Full Citation